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6 PROTEIN SYNTHESIS (Full Edition)
9 Eukaryotes use a complex of many initiation factors
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tRNAiMet is the special tRNA used to respond to initiation codons in eukaryotes.
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Initiation
factors are required for all stages of initiation, including binding
the initiator tRNA, 40S subunit attachment to mRNA, movement along the
mRNA, and joining of the 60S subunit.
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Eukaryotic
initiator tRNA is a Met-tRNA that is different from the Met-tRNA used
in elongation, but the methionine is not formylated.
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eIF2 binds the initiator Met-tRNAi and GTP, and the complex binds to the 40S subunit before it associates with mRNA.
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Initiation in eukaryotes has the same
general features as in bacteria in using a specific initiation codon
and initiator tRNA. Initiation in eukaryotic cytoplasm uses AUG as the
initiator. The initiator tRNA is a distinct species, but its methionine
does not become formylated. It is called tRNAiMet.
So the difference between the initiating and elongating Met-tRNAs lies
solely in the tRNA moiety, with Met-tRNAi used for initiation
and Met-tRNAm used for elongation.
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At least two features are unique to the initiator tRNAiMet
in yeast; it has an unusual tertiary structure; and it is modified by
phosphorylation of the 2' ribose position on base 64 (if this
modification is prevented, the initiator can be used in elongation). So
the principle of a distinction between initiator and elongator
Met-tRNAs is maintained in eukaryotes, but its structural basis is
different from that in bacteria (for comparison see Figure 6.13.
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Eukaryotic cells have more initiation factors than bacteria —
the current list includes 12 factors that are directly or indirectly
required for initiation (for review see 2393).
The factors are named similarly to those in bacteria, sometimes by
analogy with the bacterial factors, and are given the prefix "e" to
indicate their eukaryotic origin. They act at all stages of the
process, including:
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forming an initiation complex with the 5' end of mRNA
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forming a complex with Met-tRNAi
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binding the mRNA-factor complex to the Met-tRNAi-factor complex
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enabling the ribosome to scan mRNA from the 5' end to the first AUG
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detecting binding of initiator tRNA to AUG at the start site
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mediating joining of the 60S subunit.
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Figure 6.19
Some initiation factors bind to the 40S ribosome
subunit to form the 43S complex; others bind to mRNA. When the 43S
complex binds to mRNA, it scans for the initiation codon and can be
isolated as the 48S complex.
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Figure 6.19 summarizes the stages of initiation, and shows which initiation factors
are involved at each stage. eIF2 and eIF3 bind to the 40S ribosome
subunit. eIF4A, eIF4B, eIF4F bind to the mRNA. eIF1 and eIF1A bind to
the ribosome subunit-mRNA complex (for review see 2840).
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Figure 6.20
The heterotrimer eIF4F binds the 5' end of mRNA and also binds further factors.
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Figure 6.20 shows the group of factors that bind to the 5' end of mRNA. The factor
eIF4F is a protein complex that contains three of the initiation
factors (for review see 994). It is not clear whether it
preassembles as a complex before binding to mRNA or whether the
individual subunits are added individually to form the complex on mRNA.
It includes the cap-binding subunit eIF4E, the helicase eIF4A, and the
"scaffolding" subunit eIF4G. After eIF4E binds the cap, eIF4A unwinds
any secondary structure that exists in the first 15 bases of the mRNA.
Energy for the unwinding is provided by hydrolysis of ATP. Unwinding of
structure farther along the mRNA is accomplished by eIF4A together with
another factor, eIF4B. The main role of eIF4G is to link other
components of the initiation complex.
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eIF4E is a focus for regulation. Its
activity is increased by phosphorylation, which is triggered by stimuli
that increase protein synthesis, and reversed by stimuli that repress
protein synthesis. eIF4F has a kinase activity that phosphorylates
eIF4E. The availability of eIF4E is also controlled by proteins that
bind to it (called 4E-BP1,2,3), to prevent it from functioning in
initiation. eIF4G is also a target for degradation during picornavirus
infection, as part of the destruction of the capacity to initiate at 5'
cap structures (see Small subunits scan for initiation sites on eukaryotic mRNA).
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The presence of poly(A) on the 3' tail of
an mRNA stimulates the formation of an initiation complex at the 5'
end. The poly(A)-binding protein (Pab1p in yeast) is required for this
effect. Pab1p binds to the eIF4G scaffolding protein(2309).
This implies that the mRNA will have a circular organization so long as
eIFG is bound, with both the 5' and 3' ends held in this complex (see Figure 6.20)
(for review see 439). The significance of the formation of this closed loop is not clear,
although it could have several effects, such as:
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stimulating initiation of translation;
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promoting
reinitiation of ribosomes, so that when they terminate at the 3' end,
the released subunits are already in the vicinity of the 5' end;
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stabilizing the mRNA against degradation;
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allowing factors that bind to the 3' end to regulate the initiation of translation.
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Figure 6.21
In eukaryotic initiation, eIF-2 forms a ternary complex with Met-tRNAi.
The ternary complex binds to free 40S subunits, which attach to the 5'
end of mRNA. Later in the reaction, GTP is hydrolyzed when eIF-2 is
released in the form of eIF2-GDP. eIF-2B regenerates the active form.
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eIF2 is the key factor in binding Met-tRNAi. It is a typical monomeric
GTP-binding protein that is active when bound to GTP, and inactive when bound to GDP
(see G proteins). Figure 6.21 shows that the eIF2-GTP binds to Met-tRNAi (1865).
The product is sometimes called the ternary complex (after its three components, eIF2, GTP, Met-tRNAi).
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Figure 6.22
Initiation factors bind the initiator Met-tRNA to the
40S subunit to form a 43S complex. Later in the reaction, GTP is
hydrolyzed when eIF-2 is released in the form of eIF2-GDP. eIF-2B
regenerates the active form.
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Figure 6.22 shows that the ternary complex places Met-tRNAi
onto the 40S subunit. This generates the 43S initiation complex. The
reaction is independent of the presence of mRNA. In fact, the Met-tRNAi
initiator must be present in order for the 40S subunit to bind to mRNA (for review see 435; 438).
One of the factors in this complex is eIF3, which is required to
maintain 40S subunits in their dissociated state. eIF3 is a very large
factor, with 8-10 subunits.
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Figure 6.23
Interactions involving initiation factors are important when mRNA binds to the 43S complex.
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The next step is for the 43S complex to bind to the 5' end of the mRNA. Figure 6.23
shows that the interactions involved at this stage are not completely
defined, but probably involve eIF4G and eIF3 as well as the mRNA and
40S subunit. eIF4G binds to eIF3. This provides the means by which the
40S ribosomal subunit binds to eIF4F, and thus is recruited to the
complex. In effect, eIF4F functions to get eIF4G in place so that it
can attract the small ribosomal subunit.
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Figure 6.24
eIF1 and eIF1A help the 43S initiation complex to scan
the mRNA until it reaches an AUG codon. eIF2 hydrolyzes its GTP to
enable its release together with IF3. eIF5B mediates 60S-40S joining.
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When the small subunit has bound mRNA,
it migrates to (usually) the first AUG codon. This requires expenditure
of energy in the form of ATP. It is assisted by the factors eIF1 and
eIF1A. Figure 6.24 shows that the small subunit stops when it reaches the initiation site, forming a 48S complex.
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Junction of the 60S subunits with the
initiation complex cannot occur until eIF2 and eIF3 have been released
from the initiation complex. This is mediated by eIF5, and causes eIF2
to hydrolyze its GTP. The reaction occurs on the small ribosome
subunit, and requires the initiator tRNA to be base paired with the AUG
initiation codon (2839).
Probably all of the remaining factors are released when the complete 80S ribosome is formed.
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Finally the factor eIF5B enables the
60S subunit to join the complex, forming an intact ribosome that is
ready to start elongation (2241). eIF5B has a similar sequence
to the prokaryotic factor IF2, which has a similar role in hydrolyzing
GTP (in addition to its role in binding the initiator tRNA).
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Once the factors have been released,
they can associate with the initiator tRNA and ribosomal subunits in
another initiation cycle. Because eIF2 has hydrolyzed its GTP, the
active form must be regenerated. This is accomplished by another
factor, eIF2B, which displaces the GDP so that it can be replaced by
GTP.
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eIF2 is a target for regulation. Several regulatory kinases act on the a
subunit of eIF2. Phosphorylation prevents eIF2B from regenerating the
active form. This limits the action of eIF2B to one cycle of
initiation, and thereby inhibits protein synthesis (for review see 2393).
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435 Hershey, J. W. B.
(1991).
Translational control in mammalian cells.
Annu. Rev. Biochem. 60, 717-755.
PubMed Journal
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438 Merrick, W. C.
(1992).
Mechanism and regulation of eukaryotic protein synthesis.
Microbiol. Rev. 56, 291-315.
PubMed
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439 Sachs, A., Sarnow, P., and Hentze, M. W.
(1997).
Starting at the beginning, middle, and end: translation initiation in eukaryotes.
Cell 89, 831-838.
PubMed Journal
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994 Gingras, A. C., Raught, B., and Sonenberg, N.
(1999).
eIF4 initiation factors: effectors of mRNA recruitment to ribosomes and regulators of translation.
Annu. Rev. Biochem. 68, 913-963.
PubMed Journal
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2393 Dever, T. E.
(2002).
Gene-specific regulation by general translation factors.
Cell 108, 545-556.
PubMed Journal
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2840 Pestova, T. V., Kolupaeva, V. G., Lomakin, I. B., Pilipenko, E. V., Shatsky, I. N., Agol, V. I., and Hellen, C. U.
(2001).
Molecular mechanisms of translation initiation in eukaryotes.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98, 7029-7036.
PubMed Journal
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1865 Asano, K., Clayton, J., Shalev, A., and
Hinnebusch, A. G. (2000). A multifactor complex of eukaryotic
initiation factors, eIF1, eIF2, eIF3, eIF5, and initiator tRNA(Met) is
an important translation initiation intermediate in vitro.
Genes Dev. 14, 2534-2546.
PubMed Journal
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2241 Pestova, T. V., Lomakin, I. B., Lee, J. H., Choi, S. K., Dever, T. E., and Hellen, C. U.
(2000).
The joining of ribosomal subunits in eukaryotes requires eIF5B.
Nature 403, 332-335.
PubMed Journal
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2309 Tarun, S. Z. and Sachs, A. B.
(1996).
Association of the yeast poly(A) tail binding protein with translation initiation factor eIF-4G.
EMBO J. 15, 7168-7177.
PubMed
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2839 Huang, H. K., Yoon, H., Hannig, E. M., and Donahue, T. F.
(1997).
GTP hydrolysis controls stringent selection of the AUG start codon during translation initiation in S. cerevisiae.
Genes Dev. 11, 2396-2413.
PubMed Journal
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© Jones and Bartlett Publishers (2007)
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